Parable of the Dishonest Steward

From Wiki Maria Valtorta
Illustration by James Tissot, Brooklyn Museum
The parable of the dishonest steward is unique to Luke.[1] It is one of the most perplexing of the Gospels: how can it be understood that Jesus praises a fraudster? The different titles under which it is known illustrate this perplexity: while the steward is commonly described as "dishonest," he becomes "unfaithful" in Catholic liturgy and "shrewd" in Protestantism.

While traditional exegesis vacillates between spiritual allegory (foresight for the Kingdom) and moralizing reading (condemnation of dishonesty), Maria Valtorta offers a reading that is both realistic and radical. For her, this parable reveals a law of the Kingdom: wealth, even unjustly acquired,[2] can be a means of salvation if used for justice. Money is not evil in itself, but selfish use of it is. Holiness therefore involves an economic conversion: detachment, restitution, sharing, but also repair of injustices, etc., all the more difficult if one is wealthy[3] because it requires a conversion that turns away from idolatrous money (Mammon) toward love of God and Neighbor.[4]

Paradoxes raised by exegesis[edit | edit source]

Unlike other parables (e.g., the Good Samaritan), the parable of the dishonest steward does not give a clear answer. It invites interpretation on some paradoxical points:

Praising a fraudster[edit | edit source]

The master praises the steward for his dishonest behavior (verse 8: "The master commended the dishonest manager because he had acted shrewdly"). According to traditional interpretation (St. Augustine): Jesus does not praise fraud, but the foresight of the "children of this world."

This is understandable, but the difficulty comes from linking dishonesty and shrewdness in the same praise, which can make shrewdness a synonym for cunning. How, under these conditions, can an act that sounds immoral become a model for the disciples since it approaches a Judas the thief, who also became a dishonest steward?[5]

"Unjust" riches[edit | edit source]

Verse 9 ("Make friends for yourselves with unrighteous wealth") suggests using ill-gotten goods for Salvation. But what exactly is meant by "unrighteous wealth"? Does it mean profits from theft, a form of rehabilitation? Or does it refer generally to wealth opposed to true heavenly riches, as suggested by verse 11?

God and Mammon[edit | edit source]

The conclusion (verse 13: "You cannot serve God and Mammon") seems to contradict the beginning (using money to save oneself). Moreover, if money is diabolical (idolatrous money[6]), how can it serve the Kingdom?

The Heaven of the rich through the poor[edit | edit source]

The promise of verse 9 ("They will welcome you into eternal dwellings") hints at intercession through the poor, an idea absent elsewhere in the Gospels, at least explicitly.[7] Luke follows three parables about the rich: The Rich Fool,[8] the dishonest steward, and the parable of the rich man and poor Lazarus that follows.[9] What is the convergence of these teachings?

Who really is the "master"?[edit | edit source]

Is the parable's master a figure of God or a prototype of an ordinary rich man? Can God give an ambiguous teaching, and can the rich give a lesson in holiness?

The unity of the story[edit | edit source]

Verse 18 introduces a comment on divorce[10] which is difficult to connect to the parable or even to the reaction of the Pharisees who "loved money" (verse 15). It is understandable that they ridicule Jesus' teaching on money: it involves a reproach against them (but which?). That Jesus then continues with a reminder of divine law is also understandable, but this transition from money to divorce raises questions.

A condensed narration[edit | edit source]

The parable (Mashal in Hebrew) traditionally consists of three distinct parts:

  1. The announcement of the theme: it is the prologue or introduction that sets the subject, prepares the audience, and indicates the immediate purpose of the parable.
  2. The parable itself: the narrative story using a daily event to illustrate a spiritual truth.
  3. The commentary: the conclusion or explanation (exegesis) where the master reveals the Hidden meaning and draws the moral or theological lesson.

In Luke’s narration, the announcement of the theme is missing. It begins directly with the parable (verses 1 to 7) and concludes the teaching with key points (verses 8 to 13). The evangelist adds the reactions of the hostile part of the audience, which gives Jesus the opportunity to draw a new teaching, not about a parable but about the example set by his opponents.

What can thus respond to apparent paradoxes and show the overall coherence (and importance) of this teaching is found in the parts Luke has summarized or omitted.

The comparative approach of Luke and Maria Valtorta[edit | edit source]

Maria Valtorta’s narration includes all three complete parts of a parable: announcement, illustration, commentary. According to her, the scene takes place almost a year before Jesus’ Passion. It happens near Jericho, explaining the presence of a group of Essenes[11] among the "great crowd [that] waits for the Master, scattered at the foot of the slopes of an almost isolated mountain." It is a crowd full of fervor in which a group of Pharisees mingled, the very ones who will intervene in the gospel narrative as well as in Maria Valtorta’s account.[12]

1. The announcement of the theme[edit | edit source]

Jesus announces salvation for the sinner caught in the net of riches. "Man, free but imperfect, wastes God's gifts." God has given everything to man - freedom, belongings, advice - so that he could choose the Good. Yet man acts "as a child would; or as a fool; the rest use it as criminals."[13] But the hour of truth comes: death arrives, and the divine Judge demands accounts. "How did you use what I entrusted to you?" Then, riches, honors, and pleasures will be worth no more than a straw before eternity. Impossible to deceive God...

Yet, there is a way out: even corruption can serve salvation. The poor who do not curse their misery, the rich who give instead of hoarding - all discover a secret: Mercy transforms traps into paths, and our weaknesses into levers for the Kingdom. "I have not come to call the righteous, but sinners to repentance," Jesus announced at the start of his ministry.[14]


This is the key to the parable and the teaching that develops it. The steward will be the man to whom God has entrusted spiritual and material wealth, and to whom He will demand accounts at the end of his life. Not a steward adorned with all Virtues, but a man prey to worldly desires.
"It would be lovely if man were as perfect as the Father in Heaven wants him.[15] Perfect in every thought, affection, deed. But man does not know how to be perfect and misuses the gifts of God, Who has given freedom of action to man, ordering, however, good things,[16] advising perfect things, so that man might not say: “I did not know”.

What use does man make of the freedom given to him by God? The greatest part of men use it as a child would; or as a fool; the rest use it as criminals. Then death comes and man is subject to the Judge Who asks severely:[17] “How did you use or misuse what I gave you?”. A dreadful question! How less worthy than motes will then look the goods of the Earth, for which man so often becomes a sinner! Poor in eternal misery, divested of a garment that nothing can replace,[18] he will stand dejected and trembling before the Majesty of the Lord, and will find no word to justify himself. Because it is easy to justify oneself, deceiving poor men. But that cannot happen in Heaven. God cannot be deceived. Never. And God does not resort to any compromise. Never.

Now, then. How can one be saved? How can man make everything be of use to his salvation, even including what has originated from Corruption, which taught men to use metals and gems as instruments of wealth and fostered their eager desire for power and pleasure of the flesh?[19] So will man, who, however poor he may be, can always sin by desiring gold, offices, women[20] immoderately, – and at times he becomes the thief of such things to have what rich people have – so will man, rich or poor as he may be, never be able to save himself?[21] Of course he will. How? By exploiting wealth on behalf of Good; exploiting misery on behalf of Good. The poor man who is not envious, who does not curse, who does not attempt to take what belongs to other people, but is happy with what he has, exploits his humble condition in order to achieve future holiness,[22] and in actual fact, most poor people know how to do that. But the rich are not so capable, as wealth is a continuous trap, set by Satan, of the treble concupiscence.

But listen to a parable and you will see that the rich also can save themselves although they are rich, or they can make amends for their past wrongs, by making good use of their riches, even if they were unjustly obtained. Because God, the Most Good God, always grants many means to His children so that they may save themselves."[23]

2. The parable[edit | edit source]

Facing imminent judgment, the steward realizes he must find the ultimate way out. Working is beyond reach: he is "no longer used to work and burdened by good living." Begging alms seems "humiliating." He decides therefore to "repent" by rendering service to build a network of friends: "He who renders service always has friends."

In this spirit, he contacts his master's debtors. Maria Valtorta’s work names two of them, the same as Luke (she simply mentions all others as well). She adds a motivation not explicit in the evangelist but serving the final teaching: compassion. The debtors have faced life’s trials and fallen into debt. They face their situation with dignity and also shoulder family responsibilities. The steward shows compassion and adjusts debts according to the difficulty: fifty measures of oil instead of one hundred for the first; eighty measures of grain instead of one hundred for the second. It is this compassion, enacted practically, that elicits the recognition of the two debtors.

A child of the world[edit | edit source]

But the dishonest steward is not a model of holiness: he is a "child of this world": he only thinks about living off a powerful man by cunning, with no other goal than material pleasure. He disparages his master to elevate himself. He makes his interlocutors believe his downfall is due to courage. He does not consider work or begging but continuing to live off the debtors he helps. He masks his self-serving attitude behind a feeling of compassion, more calculated than sincere. The exegesis concluding that the spiritual lesson is to be found not in what the steward does but in what he shows is relevant. The steward is not a model to imitate but an inspirer of a path for "children of Light."[24] This thesis is expressed by Luke and developed by Maria Valtorta: "But I exhort you", Jesus comments in Maria Valtorta, "to be shrewd, at least like the children of this world, with the means of this world, to make them serve as money to enter the Kingdom of Light."[24]

This duality between "children of this world" and "children of Light" was particularly meaningful for the audience of the time. Jesus addresses a Jewish audience familiar with these oppositions. The expression "children of this world" is rooted in an ancient Jewish tradition where "olam hazé" (this world) designates the present era marked by corruption and mortality. This is important for understanding the reactions of the Essenes and Pharisees, who will express themselves after this parable.[25]

In contrast, the coming age (Olam haba) designated God's world. An example can be found in Matthew 12:32. In a dictation from January 11, 1944,[26] the Apostle Paul speaks of "children of this age" opposed to "children of the world to come: the eternal."

Jesus reworks this dualistic framework with a typical reversal of His teaching: where Jewish apocalyptic texts condemn "this world" irrevocably, He makes it a pedagogical mirror. Thus, the dishonest steward, representing this materialistic world, paradoxically becomes an inspiration to be adapted for "children of the Light."

The Gospel shows that Jesus did not hesitate to use "counter-examples" in His teaching: such is the case of the parable of the Good Samaritan[27] or the prodigal son,[28] both reported by Luke.

3. The commentary[edit | edit source]

All this is found in the final lesson.
"And I repeat to you what the rich man said: “Fraud is not right, and I will never praise anyone[29] for it. But I exhort you to be shrewd, at least like the children of this world, with the means of this world, to make them serve as money to enter the Kingdom of Light”. That is, make good use of earthly riches, which are means distributed unjustly and used to purchase a fleeting welfare,[30] which is of no value in the eternal Kingdom, so that they may open its door to you. Assist the poor with the means you have, give back what you or any other member of your family took unjustly, break with the evil guilty love for riches. And all these things will be like friends who in the hour of your death will open the eternal gates to you and will receive you in the blissful abode.[17]

How can you expect God to give His heavenly goods, if He sees that you cannot make good use even of earthly goods? As an impossible supposition, do you want Him to accept squanderers in the heavenly Jerusalem? No, never. Up there one will live with charity, generosity and justice. Everybody for One and everyone for everybody. The Communion of Saints is an active and honest society, it is a holy society. And no one who has proved to be unjust and unfaithful can enter it.

Do not say: “But we shall be faithful up there, because we shall have everything up there without any fear”. No. He who is unfaithful in little, would be unfaithful even if he possessed everything,[31] and he who is unjust in little is unjust in much.[32] God does not trust true wealth to those who in the earthly test prove that they do not know how to use earthly riches. How can God entrust you one day in Heaven with the mission of supporting spirits of your brothers on the Earth, when you have shown that extortions, frauds and greed are your prerogatives? He will, therefore, deny you your treasure, which He had kept for you, and He will give it to those who were shrewd on the Earth, by using also what is unjust and unwholesome in deeds which make them just and wholesome.

No servant can serve two masters. Because he will belong to one or to the other, and he will hate one or the other. The two masters whom man can choose are God or Mammon. But if he wishes to belong to the former, he cannot wear the colours, or follow the voice, or use the means of the latter."[33]
The parable centrally addresses man's relationship to earthly goods: what he does with them and how he lives them. Thus reconstructed with its three parts, it transposes the practices of "children of this world" to "children of Light." This conversion rests on a goal and three means:

The goal:

  • "make good use of earthly riches, which are means distributed unjustly and used to purchase a fleeting welfare, which is of no value in the eternal Kingdom, so that they may open its door to you."

The means:

  • "Assist the poor with the means you have"
  • "give back what you or any other member of your family took unjustly"
  • "break with the evil guilty love for riches"

The social teaching[edit | edit source]

In several respects, this teaching on wealth prefigures the Social Doctrine of the Church (SDC), especially in one of its affirmations:
"if dedicated with the faith, hope, and charity of the disciples of Christ, the economy and progress can also be transformed into places of salvation and sanctification; in these areas too it is possible to express a love and solidarity beyond the human and contribute to the growth of a new humanity, which prefigures the world of the last times."[34]
For Maria Valtorta, man is not the owner of earthly goods, but their steward (manager). This is developed in the Church’s teaching: Earthly goods have a universal destination with a preferential option for the poor.[35] God denies any claim of absolute property.[36]

Mercy[edit | edit source]

In Maria Valtorta’s explanation of the parable, the debt remission - transposed to the "children of Light" - takes a central place. It is no longer the steward’s self-interested shrewdness but becomes a figure of an act of compassion. The biblical tradition gives this remission a strong theological significance: it evokes the Jubilee, where God commands release of debts and slaves[37] so that His people are never prisoners of economic enslavement. This reference was certainly very present in the contemporary audience. Jesus uses this language to show that the use of earthly goods must always be directed toward Neighbor.

Mercy, in this context, goes beyond simple economic calculation. It introduces a logic of gratuity reflecting God’s very Heart: "Be merciful, just as your Father is merciful".[38] The steward, by reducing the debt, sketches an attitude where compassion prevails over strict contractual justice. This gesture aligns with the Church’s social teaching: to be just, the economy must open to charity, become solidaric and attentive to the weakest.[39] Thus, the parable highlights the redemptive value of an economy imbued with mercy.

Compassion is the ability to perceive or deeply feel the suffering of others wanting actively to remedy it. Mercy surpasses compassion by becoming compassion in action on a more universal scale: it sympathizes to indulgence and forgiveness toward sinners who repent. At humanity’s scale, Mercy is a fundamental attribute of Christ who declares in Matthew 9:13 that He desires "mercy, not sacrifice."

The communion of saints[edit | edit source]

Jesus’s expression: "all these things will be like friends who in the hour of your death will open the eternal gates to you and will receive you in the blissful abode" echoes Luke 16:9: "that they may welcome you into the eternal dwellings." It opens the parable toward an eschatological dimension. The poor recipients of debt remission paradoxically become the "guarantors" of entrance into the Kingdom for those who shared their goods. This reversal recalls the teaching of Matthew 25:40: "Whatever you did for one of the least of these brothers and sisters of mine, you did for me."

In this perspective, the parable illustrates the communion of saints: a mysterious solidarity where material goods, when shared with love, become seeds of eternal life.[34] The poor welcome the rich in heaven because they have been mediators of a Grace received through their liberation. Thus, the management of earthly goods marked by mercy finds its fulfillment in the communion of saints, where sharing here below transforms into Home in eternity.

4. The audience’s reactions[edit | edit source]

The first remark comes from an Essene. According to his belief, he denies free will: "Man is not free to choose. He is forced to follow a fate."[40] To which Jesus replies with God’s justice who cannot condemn an innocent embryo who has not yet committed anything. It is a revenge of God against the offense He received, argues the Essene. No, Jesus responds: God does not take revenge. "God left His children free to choose between Good and Evil."[40] This second affirmation of free will provokes a reaction from a scribe: "He tempted us beyond measure. Although He knew that we were weak, ignorant, poisoned, He led us into temptation. That is either imprudence or wickedness."[40] Jesus replies by highlighting Man’s merit, which the scribe finds useless.

The Essene advances a second objection: the soul is immortal, but resurrection of the flesh brings nothing. "But do you not think that it is fair, that as during this day body and soul were united in the struggle to possess Heaven, they should be united also in the eternal Day to enjoy the reward?"[41] Jesus replies, referring him to the Essenes’ asceticism. This is a pretext to revive antagonism between Essenes and Pharisees: "To be… a more perfect man, the lord over the other animals that obey their instinct without control and to be better than most men who are soiled with animality even if they display phylacteries, fringes, tassels and wide garments and they call themselves 'the separated ones'."[41][42] The attack is frontal. The Pharisees appeal to Jesus for their defense. He sends them back to their hypocrisy and launches this call to the crowd:
"It is never the end for those who want good! Listen, sinners, and you, who are in error, or you, whatever your past may have been. Repent. Come to Mercy. It opens its arms to you. I show you the way. I am the pure vital fountain. Get rid of what has misled you so far. Undress and come to the fountain. Clothe yourselves with light. Revive. Have you stolen like highwaymen, or like gentlemen and craftily in business or in offices? Come. Have you had bad habits or lustful passions? Come. Have you oppressed your neighbour? Come. Repent. Come to love and to peace. Oh! Let the love of God flow upon you. Relieve that love, which is in anguish because of your resistance, your fear, your hesitation. I beg you in the name of My Father and yours. Come to Life and to the Truth, and you will have eternal life."[43]
The Pharisees murmur against Jesus and despise him as a "vendor of illusions and heresies," as a "sinner feigning holiness." Jesus then resumes a plea for God's Kingdom which fulfills the Law that the Pharisees distorted:
"Come, little ones of Israel. The Law is love! God is love! This is what I say to those who are frightened among you. The severe Law and the threatening prophets who foretold Me, but notwithstanding the cries of their distressing prophecies they were not able to withhold sin, end with John. After John comes the Kingdom of God, the Kingdom of love. I say to the humble: “Go in. It is for you”. And everyone with a goodwill strives to go in. But for those who will not lower their heads, beat their chests and say: “I have sinned”, there will be no Kingdom. It is written: 'Circumcise your heart and be obstinate no longer'"[44] [...] I give the Law its original form, which you distorted. Because it is the Law that will last as long as the Earth, and both sky and earth will disappear before one only of its elements or its advice. And if you alter it, because you like to do so, and if you draw fine distinctions looking for loop-holes for your faults, you had better know that it is of no avail. It is of no avail, Samuel! Of no avail, Isaiah. It is written: “You shall not commit adultery”[45] and I complete it adding: “He who sends back his wife to marry another one, is adulterous, and he, who marries a woman repudiated by her husband, is adulterous, because what God joined, death only can separate.”[46]

It is therefore these reactions from the audience most impacted by the teaching on wealth that give coherence to Luke 16:14-18.

Notes and references[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ Luke 16:1-13.
  2. ↑ Luke speaks of squandering (Luke 16:1) and not theft. Maria Valtorta clarifies the content of these rumors: "He squanders your goods, or He appropriates them, or He neglects to make them bear fruit. Be careful! Defend yourself!" (GRM 381.4).
  3. ↑ See Matthew 19:23-24: "Truly I tell you, it is hard for a rich person to enter the kingdom of heaven. Again I tell you, it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich person to enter the kingdom of God."
  4. ↑ See Matthew 22:36-40: "Teacher, which commandment in the Law is the greatest?" Jesus replied: "Love the Lord your God with all your Heart, with all your Soul and with all your mind. This is the first and greatest commandment. And the second is like it: Love your Neighbor as yourself. All the Law and the Prophets hang on these two commandments."
  5. ↑ John 12:6.
  6. ↑ In Hebrew culture, mamon is simply material wealth. But in Jesus' words (Luke 16:13), Mammon becomes a symbolic figure of deified money, a force that enslaves and competes with God.
  7. ↑ John Paul II links it to St. Gregory the Great, but also to the Beatitudes: "Blessed are you who are poor, for yours is the kingdom of God" (Luke 6:20) (Speech of February 7, 2004, to the San'Egidio community, §2).
  8. ↑ Luke 12:16-21.
  9. ↑ Luke 16:19-31.
  10. ↑ "Anyone who divorces his wife and marries another commits adultery; and the man who marries a divorced woman also commits adultery."
  11. ↑ Qumran, their historical location, is only about twenty kilometers from Jericho. At the time this vision was written (February 10, 1946), the Qumran caves were not yet discovered. Maria Valtorta’s work refers to this sect whose errors, already noted in GRM 80.3 and in the last lines of GRM 80.4, are highlighted and refuted in the dialogue that occurs in the episode between Jesus and an Essene (GRM 381.6).
  12. ↑ Luke 16:14 | GRM 381.8.
  13. ↑ GRM 381.3.
  14. ↑ Luke 5:31-32.
  15. ↑ Leviticus 19:2: "Be holy, for I the Lord your God am holy." | Matthew 5:48: "Be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father is perfect." | GRM 171.5.
  16. ↑ See Deuteronomy 30:11-20, especially verses 11 and 14.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Sternly, as at the Final Judgment recounted by Matthew 25:31-46 against the selfish (the goats), but welcoming the compassionate (the sheep).
  18. ↑ The soul stripped of the mortal body and earthly riches.
  19. ↑ Genesis 3:1‑5 – The Serpent corrupts Adam and Eve by promising knowledge to make them "like gods," opening the door to greed and the pursuit of material goods. Exodus 32:1‑8 – The people of Israel make a golden calf, worship it, and offer it as a sacrifice. The metal becomes the center of Worship, revealing how desire for wealth transforms into Adoration. Ezekiel 28:12‑17 – The text describes a being covered in precious stones, whose Heart swells with splendor, leading to Violence and fall. Paul concludes: "The love of money is the root of all evils" (1 Timothy 6:10).
  20. ↑ Three concupiscences: Pride: Excessive desire to place oneself above others and especially God (CCC §1866); Greed: Insatiable pursuit of material riches (CCC §2445); Lust: Passionate and deviant desire for sexual pleasures (CCC §1866).
  21. ↑ See Proverbs 30:6-9.
  22. ↑ "Contentment of the poor" is a spiritual virtue helping the poor remain dignified and resist vices, without releasing the Church from calling societies to justice, fair redistribution, and solidarity (the message of this parable). The message is therefore not "accept injustice" but "live in hope and humility while working for a more just world."
  23. ↑ GRM 381.3/4.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 GRM 381.5.
  25. ↑ GRM 381.6/9.
  26. ↑ Notebooks 1944, January 11: "I, a witness to Christ, swear this to you. Neither flesh nor blood can inherit the kingdom of God, but only the spirit can. And, as is stated in the Gospel of Jesus our Lord [Luke 16:8], the children of this age‑understand, O brothers and sisters, that here 'age' signifies those who are in the world, that is, those who are earthly‑are not the ones destined to rise again and remarry, possessing a second earthly life. Only those who are worthy of the second age, the eternal one, will rise again [...]"
  27. ↑ Luke 10:25-37.
  28. ↑ Luke 15:11-37.
  29. ↑ In GRM 82.3, it is shown how Judas uses deception to sell Aglae's jewels that will serve to ransom John the Baptist.
  30. ↑ This opinion of Jesus finds illustration in the Parable of the Rich Man and Poor Lazarus (Luke 16:19-31) which immediately follows the dishonest steward’s parable.
  31. ↑ Maria Valtorta clarifies this expression by the following note on a typewritten copy: "Figurative way of speaking to make the comparison understandable: Good obviously, in Heaven one cannot sin or be unfaithful, because those in Heaven are already confirmed in Grace and can no longer sin. But Jesus makes this comparison to be better understood."
  32. ↑ This expression is mentioned in Luke 16:10. Some translations keep the word dishonest, others Unjust. In the Gospel this notion of similarity between behavior (small or large matters) appears several times: Matthew 25:21 and 23 (Parable of the Talents) | Luke 19:17 (Parable of the Minas) or, conversely, of inconsistency: Matthew 23:23-24 and Luke 11:42 (rebuke of the Pharisees).
  33. ↑ GRM 381.5.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church, § 326 citing John Paul II, Encyclical Laborem exercens, §§ 25-27, September 14, 1981, on the 90th anniversary of the encyclical Rerum Novarum.
  35. ↑ Compendium:' Universal destination - §§171-175 - Universal destination of goods and preferential option for the poor - §§182-184.
  36. ↑ Pope Francis, Encyclical Laudato Si, §67 - May 24, 2015.
  37. ↑ Leviticus 25 | Deuteronomy 15.
  38. ↑ Luke 6:36.
  39. ↑ Benedict XVI - Caritas in veritate, §6.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 GRM 381.6.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 381.7.
  42. ↑ Pharisees means 'separated ones' in Aramaic.
  43. ↑ 381.7-8.
  44. ↑ Deuteronomy 10:16.
  45. ↑ Exodus 20:14 | Deuteronomy 5:18.
  46. ↑ GRM 381.9.

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